Effective Communication And Alternative Communication

Alternative Communication Augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) includes all forms of communications (other than oral speech) that are used to express thoughts, needs, wants, and ideas. We all use AAC when we make facial expressions or gestures, use symbols or pictures, or write (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) 2016). This style of communication is supported by many individuals in the school and home setting including speech pathologist, special education teachers, paraprofessionals, and parents. The direct guidance usually comes from the speech pathologist and they train the other individuals to use the device or system. When augmentative and alternative communication it can be wonderful for people with severe speech or language problems rely on AAC to supplement existing speech or replace speech that is not functional (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) 2016). It helps people use special augmentative aids that allow them to help expre ss themselves. This can increase social interactions, school performance, and feelings of self-worth. The purpose of this paper is to take a deeper look at two different augmentative and alternative communication. Parents and teachers are put to the test to find, design and implement various communication devices to help their students have a voice. It is very important to have the research behind the devices. ProLoQuo2Go ProLoQuo2Go is a synthesized voice (text-to-speech) app that can beShow MoreRelatedUsing The Internet And E Mail1010 Words   |  5 Pagescell phone has many benefits and can make workplace communication more efficient and effective. Therefore, employees are encouraged to use the Internet and e-mail systems appropriately. Unacceptable use of the Internet and e-mail can place the company and others at risk. 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On completion of this unit a learner should: Understand effective communication and interpersonalRead MoreEssay on Why Effective Communication Is Important for Nursing1620 Words   |  7 PagesWhy Effective Communication is Important for Nursing This essay is set to explore the importance of developing effective communication skills in nursing. It will give a short overview on what communication is and what it involves. Then it will explain the importance of effective communication in nursing. Furthermore, the essay will briefly present some challenges surrounding communication in nursing and suggestions on how they can be addressed before it concludes by summarising the needs for nursingRead MoreSolving The Conflict Resolution : Active Listening And Good Communication821 Words   |  4 Pagescost-effective alternative to ligation. Arbitration is the submission of a dispute to one or more impartial persons for a final and binding decision, known as an ‘award’. Awards are made in writing and generally final and binding on the parties in the case† (American Arbitration Association). The Communication Process Communication is one of the key elements of the conflict resolution process. The most of the conflicting situations are due to a miscommunication. It is why a good communication mustRead MoreWhy Jane Is Not Able For Imitate Motor Movements, And Based On The Results Of The Risk Benefit997 Words   |  4 Pagesimitate motor movements, and based on the results of the risk benefit analysis, implementing another alternative communication system such as PECS will be beneficial. It appears that PECS is an easy procedure, simple to be interpreted by individuals, and requires less clinical skills than other procedures. Also, this procedure could eventually develop speech as it requires interaction in communication within its first phases. Strategies to Prevent Challenging Behaviors It seems that the behavior might

Community Food Bank Case Study Solution - 1024 Words

Case Company Many people in our country go hungry every single day. Impoverished neighborhoods are often hit the hardest, especially during an economic downturn. The Community Food Bank in Fresno, California attempts to solve this problem by offering several outreach programs which the community can take advantage of. This nonprofit is a key provider of the daily nourishment needed by many in the local community. However, increasing demand and internal issues have created a situation in which the nonprofit is underperforming. Culture, communication, stress, and constant demand have all played a part in disrupting the day-to-day operations. By identifying the key areas of need, we can offer practical solutions the nonprofit can use to feed†¦show more content†¦Employees will all receive the same automated message, which they may refer to anytime. According to the article, â€Å"Six Ways to Improve Warehouse and Distribution Center Communication†, asking employees what communication channels they prefer gives them a sense of control. As a result, â€Å"If employees have control over how they receive communications, they’ll be much more likely to listen to the message.† The article also emphasizes making communication a regular occurrence. For example, sending out company updates at the same time every day or week will put employees in the habit of hearing from organization. Communication within the company is critical to maintain their daily operation when they are currently operating with less than 42 positions and is struggling to meet the projected needed food of 80 million pounds. Some positions are vacant in CFB, and at their current capacity could organize a fundraiser (Virtual Instructor). However, with the available time, CFB can start planning for future interns to increase the diversity of the company. A new view would greatly benefit the company’s fundraising strategies, to accumulate the budget needed to distribute 80 million pounds of food. Creating an internship program would require creating a separate budget to reach out and manage the intern’s positions. The U.S. Department of Labor Wage and Hour Division, unpaid interns can’t work in the course of the business in which the company will benefit (Wage and HourShow MoreRelatedTechnology Integrated into Agroforestry Systems Provides Multiple Benefits for Rural Counties 1478 Words   |  6 Pagesindustrial etc.) for continuous growth and expansion on Earth. Our natural resources are being exhausted from population increase. Food availability is a necessity that will become harder to obtain. The future will rely on applying technology to support population increase. 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Other efforts center on stabilizing individual streets by rehabbing abandoned houses. But as important as these efforts are, the truth is that eliminating or improving some of the housing stock is at best an incomplete solution. We also need to focus on the demand side of the market. Plan analysis: Major causesRead MoreThe Decline Of The Foreclosure Crisis1514 Words   |  7 Pagesseeking homes, we usually see the prices of homes decline. Cuyahoga County’s land bank is aggressively reducing our supply of low-value housing, through both demolition and rehabilitation. Other efforts center on stabilizing individual streets by rehabbing abandoned houses. But as important as these efforts are, the truth is that eliminating or improving some of the housing stock is at best an incomplete solution. We also need to focus on the demand side of the market. 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Regulation of Natural Monopolies by Government

Question: Discuss about the Regulation of Natural Monopolies by Government. Answer: Introduction: A monopoly refers to the business organization which maintains exclusivity when it comes to the provision of particular commodity or service to the consumers. Monopoly can develop based on the form of the market or naturally. A natural monopoly refers to a kind of monopoly where the supplier through economies of scale comes up with the lowest cost of production. (Boundless, 2016). It is usually argued in most cases that one of the ways of increasing efficiency and reducing prices of commodities in the market is through competition. Competition compels the firms to come up with various tactics to retain and at the same time increase the number of customers. One of the techniques being an efficient use of the company's assets to reduce average total cost. But what if the existing market demand doesn't permit an extra firm to enter the market? That is, what if an additional entry of another company into the market will cause an increase in the overall average total costs in the industry? Such a situation exists in the case of natural monopolies. Examples of natural monopolies include water, sewerage, and electric power suppliers. Under natural monopoly, it is not practical to have more than one company providing similar utilities. For example, it is unreasonable to have say three companies supplying electric power to the households and commercial businesses. The reasons we can't have them is because of high initial capital required to initiate a national system or network of power lines. Apart from the large initial expense, it will not be prudent to have more than firm providing water since it will lead to duplication of resources and the average cost of production will also be high. The figure below illustrates what will happen if one and three companies provide utilities to the consumers. If the total demand in the industry is 10,000 units and one firm provides the 10,000 units, the average cost also known the price will be equal to 9. But if we have three companies, each will produce 3,000 units which will increase the average total cost to 17. Therefore, we can conclude that this industry requires one firm. The main problem or issue with natural monopolies is that if they are not controlled, they will end up producing goods or services which fewer compared to the required amount and charge high prices hence making supernormal profits. For example, if electricity supply is unregulated, the supplying company will produce its output following the rule of profit maximization where the marginal revenue is equivalent to marginal cost i.e. MR=MC. Marginal revenue refers to an extra income brought about by selling an additional unit of the output. (Gans, 2014). Marginal cost, on the other hand, refers to an additional charge which the producer incurs in the production of an additional unit of output. This means that if the income as a result of sales is equal or greater than expense which a firm incurs in production, then the trade can take place. The firm will produce the output at a point where the marginal revenue is less compared to the price charged. This will result in an increase in deadweight loss. Deadweight loss refers to an economic loss which occurs as a consequence of the inefficient allocation of resources. (McEachern, 2012). It is likely to happen in a situation where there is disequilibrium between the supply and demand. From the figure below, deadweight is represented by the area between the marginal cost curve and the demand curve which represents underproduction. Consumers usually feel that price charged for a good or service is not reasonable compared to the product's perceived benefits. (Mankiw, 2014). This wrong perception makes the consumers shun away from the product, and this leads to lower sales. This means that the marginal cost incurred during production will be less than the price which is an indicator of inefficiency in relation to resource allocation. Inefficient allocation of resources means that the firm is producing much less output than the required amount and at the same charges high prices which translates to earning of supernormal profits. In another scenario, the natural monopolist can decide to produce the output to a point where the price of the commodity equals the marginal cost i.e. P=MC. At this point, the marginal social benefit is equivalent to marginal social cost. To the consumers, this is the best option since the price of the goods and services is low, and there are no deadweight costs. This can be illustrated by the graph below. Based the graph above we can observe that a consumer will be charged POPT which is far below the average total cost at the given quantity. When the average total cost is below price, the firm will lose the income and the only way business in this type of situation can be redeemed and survive is through government subsidies. This calls for government intervention through control of output and the price. The government might decide to set up a price ceiling for the utilities at the point where the price is equivalent to the company's marginal cost. However, this will lead to a scenario where the price is less than the average cost, and this can result in terrible losses. A better-controlled price under this type of market is where the firm is allowed to charge a fair-return price. A fair-return is a price which is equivalent to the total average total cost of the enterprise. In economics, this is the price which will enable the business to earn a normal profit. Most governments have co me up with better strategies to regulate the natural monopolies. One of most popular strategy is setting up a price where the average cost of a natural monopoly is equal to its demand. This means that the company will earn a normal profit which is enough to keep the business going. The earning of normal profits will imply efficient allocation of resources and increase in the welfare of the consumers. After government intervention, the natural monopolist company will sell its goods or services to the customer at the intersection point between the average cost (AC) and demand (D). This means that the user will be paying for the goods and services at Pac as shown in the figure above. Setting up a standard price by the government to the natural monopolies ensures that the companies follow or adhere to specific standards of quality. (Arnold, 2010). Sometimes firms operating under the monopolies may fail to observe quality in the provision of goods and services due to less incentive. But through government intervention, such a company can provide qualit y products and services. Apart from regulating the natural monopolies through pricing, the federal government can also control the natural monopolies through other means such as through output control. Sometimes the natural monopolies may lower the quantity of the production or reduce the quality of the goods or services and charge high prices leading to earning of abnormal profits. But the government will ensure that the right output is available and correct price is charged to the consumers. It is crucial to note that the control of the monopolies by the government does not turn out the way it is supposed. The control of the natural monopolies either through pricing, output or profits distorts the incentives for the individuals operating the natural monopoly. For example, if the government decides to control the profits and ensure that the company doesn't earn the economic profits and instead gets normal profits, then the firm will have little or no incentive to reduce the costs. Additionally, control of the natural monopolies requires one to have information concerning the current costs in the business. Getting data concerning the costs incurred by the firm is not easy to acquire both for the natural monopoly and the government. Sometimes the natural monopolies may manipulate the figures to a certain level which won't reveal the state of affairs of the company. The collection of accurate and reliable data by the officials of the firm may be hard due to lack of incentives to aid in data gathering. Various economic scholars have come up with different theories or models which try to explain the concept of business regulation by the government. One of the theories is the public interest theory. This economic model established by Arthur Cecil Pigou asserts that control or regulation is meant to serve the interest of the public and not specific individuals in the society. It is assumed under this theory that the market is very delicate to be abandoned and there is the need to have neutral arbiter which in this case is the government. The model also assumes that the control of the businesses such as natural monopolies is meant to ensure an efficient distribution of the resources through output maximization and minimization of variance. Additional the theory assumes that the officials elected the best interest of the society. However, the model has received quite some criticisms whereby it is usually contrasted with the public choice model which is cynical concerning government moti ves and behavior. The other regulation theory is capture theory. This theory states that the agency controlling the industry will always monitor the sector which is being controlled. Most of the officials in the control panel are usually made up of prospective or former workers of the enterprise and in most cases; the individuals promote inefficiency instead of efficiency. (Markova, 2009). The controls are meant to serve the common interest of the firms in the industry. Another regulation theory is the public choice theory which asserts the control is expected to serve the government regulators' interests. The regulators are more likely to favor a control or regulation which provides more regulatory power. The regulation of the natural monopolies by the government brings in various expenses to the economy. One of the costs is the regulatory agency costs. The public usually pays this cost which is incurred to ensure that regulatory agencies carry out their operations efficiently in the form of taxes. Controlling the amount of firms which operate in a given industry is meant to reduce competition. On the other hand, lack of competition may act to the detriment of the consumer whereby the producer may choose to charge higher prices. References Arnold, R. A. (2010).Microeconomics. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning. Boundless. (2016). Regulation of Natural Monopoly. Boundless Economics. Available from: https://www.boundless.com/economics/textbooks/boundless-economics-textbook/monopoly-11/monopoly-in-public-policy-74/regulation-of-natural-monopoly-279-12376/ Retrieved 25 Dec. 2016. Gans, J. K. S. S. R. B. (2014).Principles of economics with student resource access 12 months. New York: Cengage Learning. Mankiw, N. G. (2014). Principles of economics. Markova, E. (2009).Liberalization and regulation of the telecommunications sector in transition countries: The case of Russia. Heidelberg: Physica-Verl. McEachern, W. A. (2012). Economics: A contemporary introduction. Mason, OH: South-Western Cengage Learning.

Catherine The Great Essay Example For Students

Catherine The Great Essay Throughout history, Russia has been viewed as a regressive cluster of barely civilized people on the verge of barbarism. In the eighteenth century, ideas of science and secularism grasped hold of Europe, and Russian Czars, realizing how behind Muscovite culture was, sought out this knowledge, attempting to imbed it into Russian society. Catherine II was one of these Czars. She listened to both the ideas of the philosophes and the problems of her people and strove to enlighten Russia by codifying the laws, establishing an elected government, funding hospitals, and forming a functioning school board. Her attempts, however, were met with only partial success. Her reforms received much criticism, especially from the serfs, and Catherine was forced to realize, through the Pugachev Rebellion in 1773, that enlightening all of Russia was an impossibility. Catherine IIs greatest glory was seen in her foreign policies, as she solved two fundamental problems for Russia by winning victories over Turkey and Poland. As well, she established a League of Armed Neutrality and spoke out against the French Revolution. Catherines reign created both prosperity and poverty for Russia. In order to decide whether she was truly great, one must evaluate her accomplishments upon the foundation of Russian ideals. At the end of the seventeenth century, Russia was a country in transition. The death of Czar Alexis in 1676 marked a change in Russian society, a movement from traditional Muscovite culture toward new, educated concepts. Reforms in the 1650s divided and weakened the Russian Orthodox Church, and a few bold individuals began to adopt a semi-westernized lifestyle. By western standards, however, Russia still seem backward, and at best, a fringe nation of Europewithout benefit of middle class, universities, academies, or secular culture (Oblensky and Stone 144). The rebellion of the musketeers, or streltsy, in 1682 exposed a web of destructive feuds, religious superstition and xenophobia within Russia. Peter I took the throne in 1682 and reigned until 1725, with themes of war, love of foreigners, and love of the sea marking his rule. He and his army defeated Sweden at Poltava in 1709, he founded a navy at St. Petersburg, and he expanded the policy of hiring foreigners. Peter wrought numerous changes, attempting to impose order on the Russian society, but, along with these reforms, he forged a gap between the upper Russian classes and the peasant population. After his death, Russia was turned over to several meager Czars: Peters wife, Catherine I, a self-indulged illiterate, from 1725-27; Peter, his 12 year old grandson, from 1727-30; his niece A nna, a woman with no political interests from 1730-40; and Ivan VI, an infant from, 1740-41 (Oblensky and Stone 145). In 1741, Peters daughter, Elizabeth was raised to the throne, overthrowing Ivan VI. Lavish baroque palaces, an increase in western culture, and the taking of Berlin from Prussia in the Seven Years War characterized her reign. Again, Russia seemed to be establishing itself as a powerful society. However, Elizabeths successor, Peter III, undid much of what she had accomplished, as he returned Russias gains from the Seven Years War to his hero Frederick the Great (Oblensky and Stone 145). Within six months of his succession, Peter was overthrown by a Guards coup in favour of his German wife, Catherine II. Catherine was thirty-three years old when she ascended the Russian throne. She had survived a loveless marriage, in which ambition alone sustained her (Gooch 6). Ignored by her husband, Peter III, she dedicated her time to learning the Russian language, studying the writings of the philosophes, and adapting cleverly to her new environmentskills which constitute important aspects of her reign. Schooled by these teachings, she favoured religious tolerance, justice tempered with mercy (Gooch 91), education for women, civil rights determined within the bounds of class and estate, and the classical style in art and architecture. A women quite out of the ordinary, Catherine possessed high intelligence, a natural ability to administer and govern, a remarkable practical sense, energy to spare, and an iron will (Riasanovsky 256). Along with her determination went courage and optimism, self-control, skill in discussion and propaganda, and a clever handling of men and circumstances to best serve her ends. Yet, together with her virtues, Catherine had certain weaknesses: her determination easily became ruthlessness, just as her ambition became vanity (Gooch 96). Even Catherine IIs admirers sometimes noticed that she lacked something, call it charity, mercy, or human sympathy (Riasanovsky 256). Indisputably, however, for the first time since Peter the Great, Russia had acquired a sovereign who worked day and night, paying personal attention to all kinds of matters, great and small. Catherine began her reign with numerous enlightened, ambitious ideas, based on her readings of the philosophes. She took the first step toward liberalism by forming the Legislative Commission in which elections were introduced, codifying the Russian laws, creating a uniform school system and establishing a branch of public hospitals. Upon her inauguration to the throne, Catherine had asked God to help her observe the law of the Orthodox Church, strengthen and defend the beloved fatherland, preserve justice, eradicate evil, all lies and impositions, and finally, to set up state institutions, by means of which the government would work within set limits and each department would have a defined sphere of action so that general good order would be maintained. For these purposes, she investigated every case that had come to her attention in order to discover the shortcomings that existed in Russia and how to best relieve them (Dukes 51). In the first year of her reign, she noticed the general confusion and the inadequacy existing in the arrangement and the application of imperial laws. Peter the Great attempted twice to codify Russias laws, first in 1700 and again in 1714, with similar attempts made by his successors, particularly Elizabeth. None, however, were successful. For two years Catherine prepared her Instructions, or Nakaza set of principles which reflected her opinions on the political and legal structure desirable for Russia (Hosking 95). Although Catherine had no intention of granting her subjects a constitution, and although her propaganda greatly exaggerated the radical nature of her intentions, the Nakaz was a strikingly liberal document (Riasanovsky 258). To discover the needs and wants of the Russian people, Catherine formed a Law Code Commission in 1767. The members were elected in local gatherings of the relevant estates: the nobility, the townsfolk, the state peasants, the Cossacks, the odnodvortsydescendants of the militarized peasants who had staffed the frontier linesand the non-Russians. (Hosking 98). Deputies were sent to Moscow from all districts and towns, each with their own nakaz, or cahier, in which the requests and statements of grievance originating from their electors were drafted. However, the representatives were insensitive to the broad vision of creative statesmanship laid before them by their monarch (Dukes 100) and efforts were directed only at obtaining what they could within the existing system rather than recommending fundamental reforms. Catherine was quick to realize that the members were unaware of the needs of society as a whole and that they were unable to exercise self-restraint for the general good (Dukes 101). Conveniently, she dismissed the Commission in 1768 when Russia went to war against Turkey. Nevertheless, the drafts written by the electives were not wasted, as the materials were employed in a Description of the Russian Empire and its International Administration and Legal Enactments, published in 1783. This proclamation was the closest thing that Russia had to a law code for the next 50 years (Hosking 100). It denounced capital punishment and torture, it argued for crime prevention and, in general, was abreast of advanced Western thought for criminology (Riasanovsky 259). Catherine decided that, before positing common interests, which did not exist, she should put more backbone into fragmented Russia by creating institutions which would enable citizens to work together at least within their own estates and orders; Catherine adopted the task of laying the foundation for a civilized Russian society. Catherines first contribution toward forming an enlightened nation was to create a system of hospitals. Although medical science had yet to reach a respected position, Russia lacked, as did many other countries, a method of administering the small amounts of medical knowledge it did possess. In attempts to alleviate this, Catherine funded the Town Hospital at St. Petersburg, the St. Petersburg House for Lunatics, and the Foundling Hospital; as well, she popularized vaccinations. The Empress donated money to fund the Town Hospital at St. Petersburg, where poor were admitted without payment (Kochan 26). Upon admittance, they were shaved, bathed, and put in tidy dress. The hospital consisted of 300 well spread beds with curtains and a professor of electricity who was permanently employed to relieve diseases. Likewise, the St. Petersburg House for Lunatics was constructed, which became renowned for its gentle treatment. Essay Question About Symbolism In The Scarlet LetterCatherine had realized long before, during the Legislative Commission, that in order to abolish serfdom Russia would have to be completely re-instituted: priests must become as literate as foreign priests and the nobles as sharp-witted as the English, the peasants must know their ABC, become honest and obey the wrath of God and the rabble must have a better understanding of foreign crafts and become more intelligent (Dukes 31). The Empress realized that it was first necessary to educate the higher classes and to then let the knowledge seep down until it reached the peasantry. Regardless, Pugachevs Rebellion was a shock to Catherines liberal instincts and it marked the most critical moment of her reign: a turning point in which she replaced her radical internal reforms with an aggressive foreign policy. Shaping foreign policy was one of the principal tasks of the Russian Czar and through it, Catherine accomplished her greatest glory for Russia. Russia had three fundamental problems in foreign relations: the Swedish, the Turkish, and the Polish (Riasanovsky 264). Peter the Great solved the first and Catherine the Great the final two. In their struggle against Turkey, the Russians aimed to reach the Black Sea, to obtain their natural southern border, and to reclaim the fertile lands lost to the Asiatic in the days of the Kievan state. In The First Turkish War, 1768-74, impressive victories over Turkey were won by Count Peter Rumiantsev on land, and Alexis Orlov on sea. By the summer of 1774, Turkey was ready to make peace. The Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji awarded Russia the strategic points of Kinburn, Yenikale and Kerch in and near the Crimea as well as part of the Black Sea coast (Kochan 5). In addition, Russia acquired the right to build and Orthodox Church in Constantinople. The First Turkish War marked the first decisive defeat of Turkey by Russia and, although the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainarji reflected the Russian victory, Catherines ambitions were yet to be fulfilled. The Second Turkish War began in 1787 when Turkey declared war on Russia. Catherines troops, led by General Alexander Suvorov, scored a series of brilliant victories over Turkish forces, notably in 1790 when Suvorov stormed and won the supposedly impregnable fortress of Ismail. By the Treaty of Jassy in 1792, Russia gained the fortress of Ochakov and the Black Sea shore up to the Dniester River, and Turkey recognized her annexation of Crimea. The conquest of this region freed Russia from many of the chronic disadvantages it had suffered for centuries while hemmed in among the forests and on the poor soils of the north (Hosking 107). Catherine had won for Russia her natural boundaries in the south, and essentially solved the Turkish problem. Catherine IIs Polish policy turned out to be as impressive as her relations with Turkey. It is often said that Poland was ready for partitioning in the second half of the eighteenth century: elected kings were unable to control their subjects and the only other form of authority, the sejm, or diet, failed almost entirely to function (Riasanovsky 267). Catherine felt that Poland was constantly overrun with disorder and violence; she always looked with particular sympathy upon the oppression to which the lands and towns adjacent to the Russian empire, which were formerly her property had been subjected to (Oblensky and Stone 214). The conflicting interests of numerous religions and an avaricious gentry accentuated the weaknesses of the Polish government. For these reasons, Catherine felt it necessary that Russia take under her power all the lands, towns, and regions enclosed within Poland. By the first partition of Poland in 1772, Russia obtained White Russian and Latvian Lithuania to the Dvina and the Dnieper rivers with some 13 million inhabitants; by the second partition in 1793, Russia took more of Lithuania and most of the western Ukraine with a total of 3 million inhabitants; by the third partition in 1795, Russia acquired the remainder of Lithuania and the Ukraine, with 12 million inhabitants, as well as the Duchy of Courland, where Russian influence had predominated from the time of Empress Anne (Riasanovsky 270). The partitioning of Poland brought tragedy to the Poles, but glory to the Russians. Poland had always been regarded as a hindrance if not a danger to the growth of the Russian state (Kochan 5). Catherine had eliminated an old enemy, rival, and a source of conflicts, while at the same time adding to her own lands, resources and populations. After the division of Poland, Russia, Prussia and Austria cooperated closely on the international scene, holding Eastern Europe completely under their control. Catherine is criticized on the aggressive nature in which she, Austria, and Prussia seized the Polish lands. However, Russias case differs greatly from those of Prussia and Austria: in the three partitions, Russia took old Russian lands, once part of the Kievan state, populated principally by Orthodox Ukrainians and White Russians (Hosking 60), whereas the two German powers grabbed ethnically and historically Polish territory. The Russians, therefore, came as liberatorsas Catherine had statedthe Prussians and Austrians as oppressors. Catherines foreign policy was not limited to the relations with Turkey and Poland. Other important developments included the Russian role in the League of Armed Neutrality, a war against Sweden, and the Empresss reaction to the French Revolution. To protect the commerce of non-combatant states against arbitrary actions of the British, Catherine proposed a doctrine of armed neutrality at sea in 1780. It insisted that neutral ships could pass freely from port to port and along the coast to combatants, that enemy goods in neutral ships, except contraband, were not subject to seizure, and that to be legal a blockade had to be enforced, rather than merely proclaimed (Riasanovsky 271). Several other European countries supported her proposals which eventually became part of international maritime law. In 1788, Sweden attacked Russia while the Russian armies were at war with Turkey. Repeatedly, the Swedes threatened St. Petersburg, however, with no success, as the Treaty of Werala in 1790 confirmed the pre-war boundary. Catherine triumphed in defending her adopted country. The French Revolution made a strong impression on Catherine: the heroes she embraced in her youth became the objects of criticism in her maturity. I cannot believe in the superior talents of the cobblers and shoemakers for government and legislation, she wrote in 1789, they know ten times more and do ten times more harm than my employes who do not indulge in such fine phrases (Gooch 99). Catherine, however, lived in Russiaa backward country with no middle class, where education and science were rejected in favour of Muscovite superstition and religionand not Francea developing nation with a powerfully educated middle class. Although Catherine had made the first step in progressivism, by introducing a system of government, laws, hospitals, and schools, the Russian commoner remained unaffected. In France, the peasantry knew their desires; in Russia, they only knew their duties. Consequently, the people of Russia were unable to govern themselves and remained solely dependent on the strength of an enlightened despot; no one need blame Catherine for accepting the prevailing ideology of her time (Gooch 107). Although Catherine IIs list of achievements is of great bulk, merely recording them is not enough to define her as great. Rather, the reforms imposed by Catherine must be evaluated upon the background of ancient Muscovite beliefs. Catherine adopted a backward and ignorant society, installed provincial governments, codified the laws, created a school board, established hospitals, expanded the borders, and overall, took the first step in progressiveness. Influenced by the thinkers of her time, and observant of her countrys flaws, Catherine was able to combine the new ideas of the eighteenth century with the realities of traditional Muscovite society. The Empress understood that, in order to bring Russia abreast with western society, she must first build a backbone of government institutions from which knowledge could percolate down through all ranks of society. Her greatness comes, not only through her internal and foreign accomplishments, but also through her appreciation of Russian antiquity, and her ability to apply the new enlightened ideas to its eccentric culture. She won for Russia a place among the Great Powers which since her day, has never been lost.